Regarding using authentic language through meaningful tasks using the target language fluently, teachers of EFL/ESL are often asked to develop task syllabuses. In this light, task definition is relevant in syllabus design, classroom teaching and learner assessment. It supports evident research agendas and has influenced educational policymaking in both EFL and ESL contexts. What is a task? The most cited definitions of a task are the following:
A task is a piece of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting with the target language. At the same time, their attention is focused on mobilising their grammatical knowledge to express meaning; and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right with a beginning, a middle and an end. (Nunan, 2004, p. 4)
According to Willis (1996), "a task is an activity where the learner uses the target language for a communicative purpose (goal) to achieve an outcome" (p. 23).
Richards & Rodgers (2001) define a task as "an activity or goal that is carried out using language, such as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map and giving directions, making a telephone call, writing a letter, or reading a set of instructions and assembling a toy" (p. 224).
In addition, according to Richards & Rodgers (2001), Task-Based Language Teaching refers to an approach based on using tasks as a core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching (p. 223).
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is an approach which offers students opportunities to actively engage in communication to achieve a goal or complete a task. TBLT seeks to develop students’ interlanguage by providing a task and then using language to solve it. It was first developed by N. Prabhu in Bangalore, Southern India. Prabhu believed that students may learn more effectively when their minds are focused on the task rather than the language they use.
(Prabhu, 1987; as cited in Littlewood, 2004, p. 323)
On the other hand, curriculum planners come forward systematically from needs analysis to goals and objectives to selection of the instructional content. It concerns Taba’s model of curriculum processes (1962, p. 12), which consists of Step 1: Diagnosis of needs; Step 2: Formulation of objectives; Step 3: Selection of content; Step 4: Organization of content; Step 5: Selection of learning experiences; Step 6: Organization of learning experiences; Step 7: Determination of what to evaluate and means to assess.
Steps 3 and 4 are usually known as syllabus design in language teaching. Ellis (2002) claims that "course design is concerned with the selection and sequencing of content the ‘what’ of teaching. As such, it contrasts with ‘methodology’, which addresses the ‘how’ of teaching. ‘course design’ and ‘methodology’ comprise the language curriculum" (p. 79).
Richards (1997) argues that conceptions of the nature of a syllabus are closely related to the view of language and second language learning (p. 9). He also said that syllabuses have become more communicative because of the movement toward communicative theories of language and learning. There are different types of syllabi in modern EFL/ESL courses and materials, such as Structural (organised primarily around grammar and sentence patterns), Functional (organised around communicative functions, such as identifying, reporting, correcting, and describing), Notional (organised around conceptual categories, such as duration, quantity, location); Topical (organised around themes or topics, such as health, food, clothing); Situational (organised around speech settings and the transactions associated with them, such as shopping, at the bank, at the supermarket); Skill-based (organised around skills, such as listening for gist, listening for specific information, listening for inferences); Task or activity-based (organised around activities, such as drawing maps, following directions or instructions)
A Task-based syllabus is organized around tasks students will complete in the target language. According to Nunan (1989), tasks can be:
Real-world tasks (Situational and interactional authenticity): Reading a map and giving directions; Reading a set of instructions and assembling an item; Conducting a survey; Conducting a search of databases for articles.
Pedagogical tasks (Interactional authenticity): Jigsaw task; Information-gap task; Problem-solving task; Decision-making task; Opinion-exchange task.
In conclusion, applying the task-based approach to syllabus design focuses on process rather than product. The essential elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasise communication and meaning. Likewise, learners learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasks. In addition, activities and tasks can be either those that learners might need to achieve in real life or have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom and are sequenced according to difficulty. The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors, including the learner's previous experience, the task's complexity, the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support available.
REFERENCES
Ellis, R. (2002). The methodology of task-based teaching. Kansai University Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 4, 79-101.
Littlewood, W. (2004). The task-based approach: Some questions and suggestions. ELT Journal, 58(4), 319-326.
Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. C. (1997). The language teaching matrix. Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. Harcourt, Brace & World.
Willis, J. (1996-2021). A framework for task-based learning. Intrinsic Books Ltd.
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